The Social Contract and Its Impact on American Politics

The term social contract refers to the idea that the state exists only to serve the will of the people, who are the source of all political power enjoyed by the state. The people can choose to give or withhold this power.  The idea of the social contract is one of the foundations of the American political system. Origin of the Term The term social contract can be found as far back as the writings of the 4th-5th century BCE Greek philosopher Plato. However, it was English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) who expanded on the idea when he wrote Leviathan,  his philosophical response to the English Civil War. In the book, he wrote that in early human history there was no government. Instead, those who were the strongest could take control and use their power over others at any time. His famous summation of life in nature (before government) is that it was nasty, brutish, and short. Hobbes theory was that in the past, the people mutually agreed to create a state, giving it only enough power to provide protection of their well-being. However, in Hobbes theory, once the power was given to the state, the people then relinquished any right to that power. In effect, the loss of rights was the price of the protection they sought. Rousseau and Locke The Swiss philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) each took the social contract theory one step further. In 1762, Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right, in which he explained that government is based on the idea of popular sovereignty. The essence of this idea is that the will of the people as a whole gives power and direction to the state. John Locke based many of his political writings on the idea of the social contract. He stressed the role of the individual and the idea that in a state of nature, people are essentially free. When Locke referred to the state of nature, he meant that people have a natural state of independence, and they should be free to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature. Locke argued that people are thus not royal subjects, but in order to secure their property rights, people willingly give over their right to a central authority to judge whether a person is going against the laws of nature and needed to be punished. The type of government is less important to Locke (except for absolute despotism): Monarchy, aristocracy, and republic are all acceptable forms of government as long as that government provides and protects the basic rights of life, liberty, and property to the people. Locke further argued that if a government no longer protects each individuals right, then revolution is not just a right but an obligation. Impact on the Founding Fathers The idea of the social contract had a huge impact on the American Founding Fathers, especially Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) and James Madison (1751–1836). The U.S. Constitution starts with the three words, We the people..., embodying this idea of popular sovereignty in the very beginning of this key document. Following from this principle, a government established by the free choice of its people is required to serve the people, who in the end have  sovereignty, or supreme power, to keep or overthrow that government. Jefferson and John Adams (1735–1826), often political rivals, agreed in principle but disagreed about whether a strong central government (Adams and the federalists) or a weak one (Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans) sufficed best for supporting the social contract. Social Contract for Everyone As with many philosophical ideas behind the political theory, the social contract has inspired various forms and interpretations and has been evoked by many different groups throughout American history. Revolutionary-era Americans favored social contract theory over the British Tory concepts of patriarchal government and looked to the social contract as support for the rebellion. During the antebellum and Civil War periods, social contract theory was used by all sides. Slaveholders used it to support states rights and succession, Whig party moderates upheld the social contract as a symbol of continuity in government, and abolitionists found support in Lockes theories of natural rights. More recently, historians also have linked social contract theories to pivotal social movements such as those for Native American rights, civil rights, immigration reform, and womens rights.  Ã‚   Sources and Further Reading Dienstag, Joshua Foa. Between History and Nature: Social Contract Theory in Locke and the Founders. The Journal of Politics 58.4 (1996): 985–1009.Hulliung, Mark. The Social Contract in America: From the Revolution to the Present Age. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007.  Lewis, H.D. Plato and the Social Contract. Mind 48.189 (1939): 78–81.  Riley, Patrick. Social Contract Theory and its Critics. Goldie, Mark and Robert Worker (eds.), The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 347–375.White, Stuart. Review Article: Social Rights and Social Contract—Political Theory and the New Welfare Politics. British Journal of Political Science 30.3 (2000): 507–32.

The Social Contract and Its Impact on American Politics

The term social contract refers to the idea that the state exists only to serve the will of the people, who are the source of all political power enjoyed by the state. The people can choose to give or withhold this power.  The idea of the social contract is one of the foundations of the American political system. Origin of the Term The term social contract can be found as far back as the writings of the 4th-5th century BCE Greek philosopher Plato. However, it was English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) who expanded on the idea when he wrote Leviathan,  his philosophical response to the English Civil War. In the book, he wrote that in early human history there was no government. Instead, those who were the strongest could take control and use their power over others at any time. His famous summation of life in nature (before government) is that it was nasty, brutish, and short. Hobbes theory was that in the past, the people mutually agreed to create a state, giving it only enough power to provide protection of their well-being. However, in Hobbes theory, once the power was given to the state, the people then relinquished any right to that power. In effect, the loss of rights was the price of the protection they sought. Rousseau and Locke The Swiss philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) and English philosopher John Locke (1632–1704) each took the social contract theory one step further. In 1762, Rousseau wrote The Social Contract, Or Principles of Political Right, in which he explained that government is based on the idea of popular sovereignty. The essence of this idea is that the will of the people as a whole gives power and direction to the state. John Locke based many of his political writings on the idea of the social contract. He stressed the role of the individual and the idea that in a state of nature, people are essentially free. When Locke referred to the state of nature, he meant that people have a natural state of independence, and they should be free to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions and persons, as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature. Locke argued that people are thus not royal subjects, but in order to secure their property rights, people willingly give over their right to a central authority to judge whether a person is going against the laws of nature and needed to be punished. The type of government is less important to Locke (except for absolute despotism): Monarchy, aristocracy, and republic are all acceptable forms of government as long as that government provides and protects the basic rights of life, liberty, and property to the people. Locke further argued that if a government no longer protects each individuals right, then revolution is not just a right but an obligation. Impact on the Founding Fathers The idea of the social contract had a huge impact on the American Founding Fathers, especially Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) and James Madison (1751–1836). The U.S. Constitution starts with the three words, We the people..., embodying this idea of popular sovereignty in the very beginning of this key document. Following from this principle, a government established by the free choice of its people is required to serve the people, who in the end have  sovereignty, or supreme power, to keep or overthrow that government. Jefferson and John Adams (1735–1826), often political rivals, agreed in principle but disagreed about whether a strong central government (Adams and the federalists) or a weak one (Jefferson and the Democratic-Republicans) sufficed best for supporting the social contract. Social Contract for Everyone As with many philosophical ideas behind the political theory, the social contract has inspired various forms and interpretations and has been evoked by many different groups throughout American history. Revolutionary-era Americans favored social contract theory over the British Tory concepts of patriarchal government and looked to the social contract as support for the rebellion. During the antebellum and Civil War periods, social contract theory was used by all sides. Slaveholders used it to support states rights and succession, Whig party moderates upheld the social contract as a symbol of continuity in government, and abolitionists found support in Lockes theories of natural rights. More recently, historians also have linked social contract theories to pivotal social movements such as those for Native American rights, civil rights, immigration reform, and womens rights.  Ã‚   Sources and Further Reading Dienstag, Joshua Foa. Between History and Nature: Social Contract Theory in Locke and the Founders. The Journal of Politics 58.4 (1996): 985–1009.Hulliung, Mark. The Social Contract in America: From the Revolution to the Present Age. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007.  Lewis, H.D. Plato and the Social Contract. Mind 48.189 (1939): 78–81.  Riley, Patrick. Social Contract Theory and its Critics. Goldie, Mark and Robert Worker (eds.), The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought, Volume 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. 347–375.White, Stuart. Review Article: Social Rights and Social Contract—Political Theory and the New Welfare Politics. British Journal of Political Science 30.3 (2000): 507–32.

Oedipus Paper - 857 Words

In terms of the human experience, Plato’s Allegory of the Cave reveals that most humans would rather know the truth and suffer rather than be fed a lie for their entire lives. This idea is reflected in Sophocles’’ Oedipus the King because Oedipus seeks the truth and suffers greatly when it is found. Plato’s four stages of awareness are necessary for the final form of the good, which is the truth, to be found. In both the Allegory of the Cave and Oedipus the King, these four stages of awareness; Imagination, Belief, Reason, and Understanding, take a vital role in explaining Oedipus’ suffering. To begin with, Plato would argue that Oedipus’ imagination shadows him from the real truth. Oedipus has not been king for very long and has so much†¦show more content†¦He is almost blinded by this contradiction. This holds true when Oedipus says ,†I did not grasp it fully. Repeat your statement.† (22) Oedipus does not grasp what Tiresias says because he is not used to having people disagree or contradict what he thinks and says. Oedipus is completely blinded by Tiresias’ contradiction to his reality. Plato’s third stage of awareness, Reason, is also reflected with Oedipus. Plato states that if one is within the third stage of awareness, that â€Å"he will see him in his own proper place, not in another.† (Plato 4) This idea says that if one enters the third stage of awareness, he understands who he is by new hypotheses. This applies to Oedipus when he says, â€Å"O God! I think I have just called down on myself a dreadful curse. . . not knowing what I did.† (Oedipus 43) Oedipus thinks about the new hypothesis that he made and it now feels more like reality. This is also revealing when he says, â€Å"I am dreadfully afraid the blind prophet can see. But tell me one more thing that will throw light on this. Was Laius poorly attended, or did he have a big bodyguard, like a king?† (44) Oedipus asks many new questions regarding his life with this situation, not knowing that his fate is already sealed. Lastly, Plato would argue that the last stage of awareness, Understanding, is clearly displayed at the end of Oedipus’ reign. As Oedipus realizes what he has done, he cannot live with himself. OedipusShow MoreRelatedOedipus Reaction Paper639 Words   |  3 PagesReaction Paper on Oedipus The King World Literature Oedipus the King, also known by the  as Oedipus Rex, is an   tragedy  written by  Sophocles.  It was the second of Sophocles s  three Theban plays  to be produced, together with Oedipus at Colonus  and then  Antigone.  Oedipus Rex  chronicles the story of  Oedipus, a man who becomes the king of Thebes who was destined from birth to murder his father  Laius  and marry his mother  Jocasta. 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Twilight 4. INVITATIONS Free Essays

4. INVITATIONS In my dream it was very dark, and what dim light there was seemed to be radiating from Edward’s skin. I couldn’t see his face, just his back as he walked away from me, leaving me in the blackness. We will write a custom essay sample on Twilight 4. INVITATIONS or any similar topic only for you Order Now No matter how fast I ran, I couldn’t catch up to him; no matter how loud I called, he never turned. Troubled, I woke in the middle of the night and couldn’t sleep again for what seemed like a very long time. After that, he was in my dreams nearly every night, but always on the periphery, never within reach. The month that followed the accident was uneasy, tense, and, at first, embarrassing. To my dismay, I found myself the center of attention for the rest of that week. Tyler Crowley was impossible, following me around, obsessed with making amends to me somehow. I tried to convince him what I wanted more than anything else was for him to forget all about it – especially since nothing had actually happened to me – but he remained insistent. He followed me between classes and sat at our now-crowded lunch table. Mike and Eric were even less friendly toward him than they were to each other, which made me worry that I’d gained another unwelcome fan. No one seemed concerned about Edward, though I explained over and over that he was the hero – how he had pulled me out of the way and had nearly been crushed, too. I tried to be convincing. Jessica, Mike, Eric, and everyone else always commented that they hadn’t even seen him there till the van was pulled away. I wondered to myself why no one else had seen him standing so far away, before he was suddenly, impossibly saving my life. With chagrin, I realized the probable cause – no one else was as aware of Edward as I always was. No one else watched him the way I did. How pitiful. Edward was never surrounded by crowds of curious bystanders eager for his firsthand account. People avoided him as usual. The Cullens and the Hales sat at the same table as always, not eating, talking only among themselves. None of them, especially Edward, glanced my way anymore. When he sat next to me in class, as far from me as the table would allow, he seemed totally unaware of my presence. Only now and then, when his fists would suddenly ball up – skin stretched even whiter over the bones – did I wonder if he wasn’t quite as oblivious as he appeared. He wished he hadn’t pulled me from the path of Tyler’s van – there was no other conclusion I could come to. I wanted very much to talk to him, and the day after the accident I tried. The last time I’d seen him, outside the ER, we’d both been so furious. I still was angry that he wouldn’t trust me with the truth, even though I was keeping my part of the bargain flawlessly. But he had in fact saved my life, no matter how he’d done it. And, overnight, the heat of my anger faded into awed gratitude. He was already seated when I got to Biology, looking straight ahead. I sat down, expecting him to turn toward me. He showed no sign that he realized I was there. â€Å"Hello, Edward,† I said pleasantly, to show him I was going to behave myself. He turned his head a fraction toward me without meeting my gaze, nodded once, and then looked the other way. And that was the last contact I’d had with him, though he was there, a foot away from me, every day. I watched him sometimes, unable to stop myself- from a distance, though, in the cafeteria or parking lot. I watched as his golden eyes grew perceptibly darker day by day. But in class I gave no more notice that he existed than he showed toward me. I was miserable. And the dreams continued. Despite my outright lies, the tenor of my e-mails alerted Ren? ¦e to my depression, and she called a few times, worried. I tried to convince her it was just the weather that had me down. Mike, at least, was pleased by the obvious coolness between me and my lab partner. I could see he’d been worried that Edward’s daring rescue might have impressed me, and he was relieved that it seemed to have the opposite effect. He grew more confident, sitting on the edge of my table to talk before Biology class started, ignoring Edward as completely as he ignored us. The snow washed away for good after that one dangerously icy day. Mike was disappointed he’d never gotten to stage his snowball fight, but pleased that the beach trip would soon be possible. The rain continued heavily, though, and the weeks passed. Jessica made me aware of another event looming on the horizon – she called the first Tuesday of March to ask my permission to invite Mike to the girls’ choice spring dance in two weeks. â€Å"Are you sure you don’t mind†¦ you weren’t planning to ask him?† she persisted when I told her I didn’t mind in the least. â€Å"No, Jess, I’m not going,† I assured her. Dancing was glaringly outside my range of abilities. â€Å"It will be really fun.† Her attempt to convince me was halfhearted. I suspected that Jessica enjoyed my inexplicable popularity more than my actual company. â€Å"You have fun with Mike,† I encouraged. The next day, I was surprised that Jessica wasn’t her usual gushing self in Trig and Spanish. She was silent as she walked by my side between classes, and I was afraid to ask her why. If Mike had turned her down, I was the last person she would want to tell. My fears were strengthened during lunch when Jessica sat as far from Mike as possible, chatting animatedly with Eric. Mike was unusually quiet. Mike was still quiet as he walked me to class, the uncomfortable look on his face a bad sign. But he didn’t broach the subject until I was in my seat and he was perched on my desk. As always, I was electrically aware of Edward sitting close enough to touch, as distant as if he were merely an invention of my imagination. â€Å"So,† Mike said, looking at the floor, â€Å"Jessica asked me to the spring dance.† â€Å"That’s great.† I made my voice bright and enthusiastic. â€Å"You’ll have a lot of fun with Jessica.† â€Å"Well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He floundered as he examined my smile, clearly not happy with my response. â€Å"I told her I had to think about it.† â€Å"Why would you do that?† I let disapproval color my tone, though I was relieved he hadn’t given her an absolute no. His face was bright red as he looked down again. Pity shook my resolve. â€Å"I was wondering if†¦ well, if you might be planning to ask me.† I paused for a moment, hating the wave of guilt that swept through me. But I saw, from the corner of my eye, Edward’s head tilt reflexively in my direction. â€Å"Mike, I think you should tell her yes,† I said. â€Å"Did you already ask someone?† Did Edward notice how Mike’s eyes flickered in his direction? â€Å"No,† I assured him. â€Å"I’m not going to the dance at all.† â€Å"Why not?† Mike demanded. I didn’t want to get into the safety hazards that dancing presented, so I quickly made new plans. â€Å"I’m going to Seattle that Saturday,† I explained. I needed to get out of town anyway – it was suddenly the perfect time to go. â€Å"Can’t you go some other weekend?† â€Å"Sorry, no,† I said. â€Å"So you shouldn’t make Jess wait any longer – it’s rude.† â€Å"Yeah, you’re right,† he mumbled, and turned, dejected, to walk back to his seat. I closed my eyes and pressed my fingers to my temples, trying to push the guilt and sympathy out of my head. Mr. Banner began talking. I sighed and opened my eyes. And Edward was staring at me curiously, that same, familiar edge of frustration even more distinct now in his black eyes. I stared back, surprised, expecting him to look quickly away. But instead he continued to gaze with probing intensity into my eyes. There was no question of me looking away. My hands started to shake. â€Å"Mr. Cullen?† the teacher called, seeking the answer to a question that I hadn’t heard. â€Å"The Krebs Cycle,† Edward answered, seeming reluctant as he turned to look at Mr. Banner. I looked down at my book as soon as his eyes released me, trying to find my place. Cowardly as ever, I shifted my hair over my right shoulder to hide my face. I couldn’t believe the rush of emotion pulsing through me – just because he’d happened to look at me for the first time in a half-dozen weeks. I couldn’t allow him to have this level of influence over me. It was pathetic. More than pathetic, it was unhealthy. I tried very hard not to be aware of him for the rest of the hour, and, since that was impossible, at least not to let him know that I was aware of him. When the bell rang at last, I turned my back to him to gather my things, expecting him to leave immediately as usual. â€Å"Bella?† His voice shouldn’t have been so familiar to me, as if I’d known the sound of it all my life rather than for just a few short weeks. I turned slowly, unwillingly. I didn’t want to feel what I knew I would feel when I looked at his too-perfect face. My expression was wary when I finally turned to him; his expression was unreadable. He didn’t say anything. â€Å"What? Are you speaking to me again?† I finally asked, an unintentional note of petulance in my voice. His lips twitched, fighting a smile. â€Å"No, not really,† he admitted. I closed my eyes and inhaled slowly through my nose, aware that I was gritting my teeth. He waited. â€Å"Then what do you want, Edward?† I asked, keeping my eyes closed; it was easier to talk to him coherently that way. â€Å"I’m sorry.† He sounded sincere. â€Å"I’m being very rude, I know. But it’s better this way, really.† I opened my eyes. His face was very serious. â€Å"I don’t know what you mean,† I said, my voice guarded. â€Å"It’s better if we’re not friends,† he explained. â€Å"Trust me.† My eyes narrowed. I’d heard that before. â€Å"It’s too bad you didn’t figure that out earlier,† I hissed through my teeth. â€Å"You could have saved yourself all this regret.† â€Å"Regret?† The word, and my tone, obviously caught him off guard. â€Å"Regret for what?† â€Å"For not just letting that stupid van squish me.† He was astonished. He stared at me in disbelief. When he finally spoke, he almost sounded mad. â€Å"You think I regret saving your life?† â€Å"I know you do,† I snapped. â€Å"You don’t know anything.† He was definitely mad. I turned my head sharply away from him, clenching my jaw against all the wild accusations I wanted to hurl at him. I gathered my books together, then stood and walked to the door. I meant to sweep dramatically out of the room, but of course I caught the toe of my boot on the door jamb and dropped my books. I stood there for a moment, thinking about leaving them. Then I sighed and bent to pick them up. He was there; he’d already stacked them into a pile. He handed them to me, his face hard. â€Å"Thank you,† I said icily. His eyes narrowed. â€Å"You’re welcome,† he retorted. I straightened up swiftly, turned away from him again, and stalked off to Gym without looking back. Gym was brutal. We’d moved on to basketball. My team never passed me the ball, so that was good, but I fell down a lot. Sometimes I took people with me. Today I was worse than usual because my head was so filled with Edward. I tried to concentrate on my feet, but he kept creeping back into my thoughts just when I really needed my balance. It was a relief, as always, to leave. I almost ran to the truck; there were just so many people I wanted to avoid. The truck had suffered only minimal damage in the accident. I’d had to replace the taillights, and if I’d had a real paint job, I would have touched that up. Tyler’s parents had to sell their van for parts. I almost had a stroke when I rounded the corner and saw a tall, dark figure leaning against the side of my truck. Then I realized it was just Eric. I started walking again. â€Å"Hey, Eric,† I called. â€Å"Hi, Bella.† â€Å"What’s up?† I said as I was unlocking the door. I wasn’t paying attention to the uncomfortable edge in his voice, so his next words took me by surprise. â€Å"Uh, I was just wondering†¦ if you would go to the spring dance with me?† His voice broke on the last word. â€Å"I thought it was girls’ choice,† I said, too startled to be diplomatic. â€Å"Well, yeah,† he admitted, shamefaced. I recovered my composure and tried to make my smile warm. â€Å"Thank you for asking me, but I’m going to be in Seattle that day.† â€Å"Oh,† he said. â€Å"Well, maybe next time.† â€Å"Sure,† I agreed, and then bit my lip. I wouldn’t want him to take that too literally. He slouched off, back toward the school. I heard a low chuckle. Edward was walking past the front of my truck, looking straight forward, his lips pressed together. I yanked the door open and jumped inside, slamming it loudly behind me. I revved the engine deafeningly and reversed out into the aisle. Edward was in his car already, two spaces down, sliding out smoothly in front of me, cutting me off. He stopped there – to wait for his family; I could see the four of them walking this way, but still by the cafeteria. I considered taking out the rear of his shiny Volvo, but there were too many witnesses. I looked in my rearview mirror. A line was beginning to form. Directly behind me, Tyler Crowley was in his recently acquired used Sentra, waving. I was too aggravated to acknowledge him. While I was sitting there, looking everywhere but at the car in front of me, I heard a knock on my passenger side window. I looked over; it was Tyler. I glanced back in my rearview mirror, confused. His car was still running, the door left open. I leaned across the cab to crank the window down. It was stiff. I got it halfway down, then gave up. â€Å"I’m sorry, Tyler, I’m stuck behind Cullen.† I was annoyed – obviously the holdup wasn’t my fault. â€Å"Oh, I know – I just wanted to ask you something while we’re trapped here.† He grinned. This could not be happening. â€Å"Will you ask me to the spring dance?† he continued. â€Å"I’m not going to be in town, Tyler.† My voice sounded a little sharp. I had to remember it wasn’t his fault that Mike and Eric had already used up my quota of patience for the day. â€Å"Yeah, Mike said that,† he admitted. â€Å"Then why -â€Å" He shrugged. â€Å"I was hoping you were just letting him down easy.† Okay, it was completely his fault. â€Å"Sorry, Tyler,† I said, working to hide my irritation. â€Å"I really am going out of town.† â€Å"That’s cool. We still have prom.† And before I could respond, he was walking back to his car. I could feel the shock on my face. I looked forward to see Alice, Rosalie, Emmett, and Jasper all sliding into the Volvo. In his rearview mirror, Edward’s eyes were on me. He was unquestionably shaking with laughter, as if he’d heard every word Tyler had said. My foot itched toward the gas pedal†¦ one little bump wouldn’t hurt any of them, just that glossy silver paint job. I revved the engine. But they were all in, and Edward was speeding away. I drove home slowly, carefully, muttering to myself the whole way. When I got home, I decided to make chicken enchiladas for dinner. It was a long process, and it would keep me busy. While I was simmering the onions and chilies, the phone rang. I was almost afraid to answer it, but it might be Charlie or my mom. It was Jessica, and she was jubilant; Mike had caught her after school to accept her invitation. I celebrated with her briefly while I stirred. She had to go, she wanted to call Angela and Lauren to tell them. I suggested – with casual innocence – that maybe Angela, the shy girl who had Biology with me, could ask Eric. And Lauren, a standoffish girl who had always ignored me at the lunch table, could ask Tyler; I’d heard he was still available. Jess thought that was a great idea. Now that she was sure of Mike, she actually sounded sincere when she said she wished I would go to the dance. I gave her my Seattle excuse. After I hung up, I tried to concentrate on dinner – dicing the chicken especially; I didn’t want to take another trip to the emergency room. But my head was spinning, trying to analyze every word Edward had spoken today. What did he mean, it was better if we weren’t friends? My stomach twisted as I realized what he must have meant. He must see how absorbed I was by him; he must not want to lead me on†¦ so we couldn’t even be friends†¦ because he wasn’t interested in me at all. Of course he wasn’t interested in me, I thought angrily, my eyes stinging – a delayed reaction to the onions. I wasn’t interesting. And he was. Interesting†¦ and brilliant†¦ and mysterious†¦ and perfect†¦ and beautiful†¦ and possibly able to lift full-sized vans with one hand. Well, that was fine. I could leave him alone. I would leave him alone. I would get through my self-imposed sentence here in purgatory, and then hopefully some school in the Southwest, or possibly Hawaii, would offer me a scholarship. I focused my thoughts on sunny beaches and palm trees as I finished the enchiladas and put them in the oven. Charlie seemed suspicious when he came home and smelled the green peppers. I couldn’t blame him – the closest edible Mexican food was probably in southern California. But he was a cop, even if just a small-town cop, so he was brave enough to take the first bite. He seemed to like it. It was fun to watch as he slowly began trusting me in the kitchen. â€Å"Dad?† I asked when he was almost done. â€Å"Yeah, Bella?† â€Å"Um, I just wanted to let you know that I’m going to Seattle for the day a week from Saturday†¦ if that’s okay?† I didn’t want to ask permission – it set a bad precedent – but I felt rude, so I tacked it on at the end. â€Å"Why?† He sounded surprised, as if he were unable to imagine something that Forks couldn’t offer. â€Å"Well, I wanted to get few books – the library here is pretty limited – and maybe look at some clothes.† I had more money than I was used to having, since, thanks to Charlie, I hadn’t had to pay for a car. Not that the truck didn’t cost me quite a bit in the gas department. â€Å"That truck probably doesn’t get very good gas mileage,† he said, echoing my thoughts. â€Å"I know, I’ll stop in Montesano and Olympia – and Tacoma if I have to.† â€Å"Are you going all by yourself?† he asked, and I couldn’t tell if he was suspicious I had a secret boyfriend or just worried about car trouble. â€Å"Yes.† â€Å"Seattle is a big city – you could get lost,† he fretted. â€Å"Dad, Phoenix is five times the size of Seattle – and I can read a map, don’t worry about it.† â€Å"Do you want me to come with you?† I tried to be crafty as I hid my horror. â€Å"That’s all right, Dad, I’ll probably just be in dressing rooms all day – very boring.† â€Å"Oh, okay.† The thought of sitting in women’s clothing stores for any period of time immediately put him off. â€Å"Thanks.† I smiled at him. â€Å"Will you be back in time for the dance?† Grrr. Only in a town this small would a father know when the high school dances were. â€Å"No – I don’t dance, Dad.† He, of all people, should understand that – I didn’t get my balance problems from my mother. He did understand. â€Å"Oh, that’s right,† he realized. The next morning, when I pulled into the parking lot, I deliberately parked as far as possible from the silver Volvo. I didn’t want to put myself in the path of too much temptation and end up owing him a new car. Getting out of the cab, I fumbled with my key and it fell into a puddle at my feet. As I bent to get it, a white hand flashed out and grabbed it before I could. I jerked upright. Edward Cullen was right next to me, leaning casually against my truck. â€Å"How do you do that?† I asked in amazed irritation. â€Å"Do what?† He held my key out as he spoke. As I reached for it, he dropped it into my palm. â€Å"Appear out of thin air.† â€Å"Bella, it’s not my fault if you are exceptionally unobservant.† His voice was quiet as usual – velvet, muted. I scowled at his perfect face. His eyes were light again today, a deep, golden honey color. Then I had to look down, to reassemble my now-tangled thoughts. â€Å"Why the traffic jam last night?† I demanded, still looking away. â€Å"I thought you were supposed to be pretending I don’t exist, not irritating me to death.† â€Å"That was for Tyler’s sake, not mine. I had to give him his chance.† He snickered. â€Å"You†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I gasped. I couldn’t think of a bad enough word. It felt like the heat of my anger should physically burn him, but he only seemed more amused. â€Å"And I’m not pretending you don’t exist,† he continued. â€Å"So you are trying to irritate me to death? Since Tyler’s van didn’t do the job?† Anger flashed in his tawny eyes. His lips pressed into a hard line, all signs of humor gone. â€Å"Bella, you are utterly absurd,† he said, his low voice cold. My palms tingled – I wanted so badly to hit something. I was surprised at myself. I was usually a nonviolent person. I turned my back and started to walk away. â€Å"Wait,† he called. I kept walking, sloshing angrily through the rain. But he was next to me, easily keeping pace. â€Å"I’m sorry, that was rude,† he said as we walked. I ignored him. â€Å"I’m not saying it isn’t true,† he continued, â€Å"but it was rude to say it, anyway.† â€Å"Why won’t you leave me alone?† I grumbled. â€Å"I wanted to ask you something, but you sidetracked me,† he chuckled. He seemed to have recovered his good humor. â€Å"Do you have a multiple personality disorder?† I asked severely. â€Å"You’re doing it again.† I sighed. â€Å"Fine then. What do you want to ask?† â€Å"I was wondering if, a week from Saturday – you know, the day of the spring dance -â€Å" â€Å"Are you trying to be funny?† I interrupted him, wheeling toward him. My face got drenched as I looked up at his expression. His eyes were wickedly amused. â€Å"Will you please allow me to finish?† I bit my lip and clasped my hands together, interlocking my fingers, so I couldn’t do anything rash. â€Å"I heard you say you were going to Seattle that day, and I was wondering if you wanted a ride.† That was unexpected. â€Å"What?† I wasn’t sure what he was getting at. â€Å"Do you want a ride to Seattle?† â€Å"With who?† I asked, mystified. â€Å"Myself, obviously.† He enunciated every syllable, as if he were talking to someone mentally handicapped. I was still stunned. â€Å"Why?† â€Å"Well, I was planning to go to Seattle in the next few weeks, and, to be honest, I’m not sure if your truck can make it.† â€Å"My truck works just fine, thank you very much for your concern.† I started to walk again, but I was too surprised to maintain the same level of anger. â€Å"But can your truck make it there on one tank of gas?† He matched my pace again. â€Å"I don’t see how that is any of your business.† Stupid, shiny Volvo owner. â€Å"The wasting of finite resources is everyone’s business.† â€Å"Honestly, Edward.† I felt a thrill go through me as I said his name, and I hated it. â€Å"I can’t keep up with you. I thought you didn’t want to be my friend.† â€Å"I said it would be better if we weren’t friends, not that I didn’t want to be.† â€Å"Oh, thanks, now that’s all cleared up.† Heavy sarcasm. I realized I had stopped walking again. We were under the shelter of the cafeteria roof now, so I could more easily look at his face. Which certainly didn’t help my clarity of thought. â€Å"It would be more†¦ prudent for you not to be my friend,† he explained. â€Å"But I’m tired of trying to stay away from you, Bella.† His eyes were gloriously intense as he uttered that last sentence, his voice smoldering. I couldn’t remember how to breathe. â€Å"Will you go with me to Seattle?† he asked, still intense. I couldn’t speak yet, so I just nodded. He smiled briefly, and then his face became serious. â€Å"You really should stay away from me,† he warned. â€Å"I’ll see you in class.† He turned abruptly and walked back the way we’d come. How to cite Twilight 4. INVITATIONS, Essay examples

Chapters I to XVII of Oliver Twist Essay Example For Students

Chapters I to XVII of Oliver Twist Essay Once Oliver had made that fateful mistake of asking for more food at supper, he was immediately beaten and ordered to instant confinement. A reward was then offered to anyone who took Oliver from the parish. From this evidence so far, it is clear to see that children in particular suffered heavily to suit the financial gain of others. At first, it was Mrs. Mann who was collecting a substantial profit from the weekly allowance given to her from the parish. She decided that her gain was more important than the clean upbringing of a child and the correct nourishment for a young person was second to her well being. Next, the parish Board took measures to change the opinion of workhouses and decrease the number of poor folk going to them. To starve slowly within the workhouse or to speed up the process outside. For the next week, Oliver was subject to public floggings in front of the other boys at meal times and isolation in a cold and damp room, to serve as a reminder and to make sure that the other young orphans did not make the same mistake. Then, a chimney sweep saw the notice outside the parish offering five pounds to any person wishing to take Oliver. Mr. Gamfield, the chimney sweep, then bartered with the Board to find a fair price for the boy. It was in this discussion that the reality of Olivers childhood was well summed up in the opinion of a rather harsh man, referred to as the man in the white waistcoat. He wants the stick now and then: itll do him good; and his board neednt come very expensive, for he hasnt been over-fed since he was born. Ha! ha! ha! However, Oliver was not sold to that man as he pleaded with the magistrates not to let him go with such a mean man. Oliver was returned to the workhouse, before at last being sold to Mr. Sowerberry, a local undertaker, who seemed a kind man. Upon being introduced to the undertakers wife, she immediately seems to view Oliver in a bad way because of where he is from. I see no saving in parish children.. for they always cost more to keep, than theyre worth. It seems that almost everybody at this time makes sweeping generalisations about orphans from poor backgrounds. Then, when Oliver is given his first meal (of cold scraps), his famine is further noticeable when he devours the lot in the space of a few minutes. .. the horrible avidity with which Oliver tore the bits asunder with all the ferocity of famine.

Presentation talk of slides Essays - Pseudoscience,

Presentation talk of slides What is Homeopathy Homeopathy is a pharmaceutical science. The remedies used are regulated by the FDA in the USA. Homeopathy was founded in the 18th century by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, a physician and chemist. The ruling principle of homeopathy is the Law of Similars, which states, Let likes be cured by likes. Homeopathy is a holistic healthcare modality, which addresses acute, chronic and traumatic health problems. Principles of Classical Homeopathy Remedies should be proven on healthy subjects to determine their field of action on the mental, emotional and physical levels. The symptoms of the patient should be matched to a remedy that has produced similar symptoms in the provings, or experiments on healthy volunteers. One remedy should be prescribed at a time based on similarity to the patients symptoms. The smallest possible dose should be administered that will produce a healing response. The practitioner should endeavor to make the healing process as gentle as possible and to try to minimize aggravations. With centesimal scale remedies the remedy should only be repeated when symptoms that have improved begin to relapse. The practitioner should match the strength or potency of the remedy with the patients vital force, or the level on which their illness resides. The Source of the Remedies The remedies come from the animal, mineral, and plant kingdoms. They are also made from bacteria and viruses, or disease products. Some remedies are made from imponderables, such as sunlight, moonlight and x-rays. In recent years homeopaths have been studying the characteristics of remedies made from the different kingdoms to learn about their properties, and to understand how to apply them to sick people in a more scientific manner. An understanding of chemistry, biology, zoology and botany are advantageous to the homeopath and intertwined with homeopathy as the natural world is the source of our remedies Remedies from the Animal and Mineral Kingdom On your left is a picture of the surucucu snake or Lachesis muta, one of the greatest additions to our materia medica. On your right is a picture of gold or Aurum metallicum, another one of our great constitutional remedies. Who Can Homeopathy Help Homeopathy is good for babies and children. Homeopathy is good for the health problems of women, and for health issues relating to a womans reproductive cycle. Homeopathy is good for boys and men. Homeopathy is good for the elderly. Homeopathy is good for animals. People even treat their plants with homeopathy. Conditions Homeopathy Can Treat Allergies Fever Anxiety and Fears Arthritis Headaches and Migraines Asthma Influenza Autism InsomniaColds and coughs Trauma and Injuries Ear infections or pain Warts What Happens at a Visit to the Homeopath Your homeopath reviews your questionnaire before you come. They try to get to know you or your child and become familiar with your health problems. Since homeopathy looks at the whole person they will ask you questions about all aspects of your life. they will try to familiarize herself with your health and personal history. they tries to understand your emotional and mental health. they then type the case notes and keeps a record of all that transpires during the visit. Receiving the Remedy Homeopathic remedies come in various strengths, dilutions and in various forms. The homeopath has to determine, which method of administration would be most suitable for you The homeopath carries a wide range of remedies in stock in various strengths. They will prepare the remedy that you need for you, or if They do not have it, they will ask you to purchase it from the pharmacy or order it for you. The homeopath gives you directions on how to take the remedy, and explains what kinds of reactions you may experience after taking the remedy. The homeopath looks for obstacles to cure, which may be environmental influences, life-style challenges, or mental and emotional habits, which negatively impact your healing. Scientific investigations have never found any healing benefits other than a placebo effect from homeopathic treatments, National Health and Medical Research Council released a draft information paper in April 2014 which saying that "there is no reliable evidence that homeopathy is effective for treating health conditions. The review summarised, No good-quality, well-designed studies with enough participants for a meaningful result reported either

Free Essays on Drug Addiction

Drug addiction is a very controversial topic with many diverse definitions and opinions. Stanton Peele discusses the numerous sections of drug addiction in â€Å"Addiction Is Not a Disease.† Peele strongly argues the fact that drug addiction is not a disease and that the prevalent drug problem transpires in the ghetto. Peele also states that celebrities are not real addicts in the fact that they can and do get treatment by attending rehabilitation. Peele also discusses the importance of psychological movies of drug addiction, stating what addicts think and how they feel. However, Peele incessantly reminds the reader that drug addicts suffer from a self-inflicted compulsion. Drug addiction is not a disease; rather, it derives not only from the individual addict’s need to feel euphoric or to cope with a sense of helplessness, but also from the pressures of socioeconomic group disadvantage. Stanton Peele reasons that addiction is not a disease in the most comprehensible sense of the word: a disease has a biological cause and often a cure, while an addiction has neither. Peele explains that â€Å"Addiction is not, however, something people are born with. Nor is it a biological imperative, one that means the addicted individual is not able to consider or choose alternatives† (Elements of Argument 127). Generally, people are not â€Å"born with† addiction in the same way that babies are born with hereditary diabetes. A child who suffers from diabetes has not dileberately encouraged the disease, while a drug addict makes the choice to disrupt his or her own body by altering the central nervous system through drugs. While addiction can be as caustic as a lethal ailment, it is important to discern that no individual can contract drug addiction analogous to the way one can hereditary diabetes. The psychological motives for addicts comprise of the need to cope with a sense of defenselessness and the need to feel happy and satisfied. Stanton P... Free Essays on Drug Addiction Free Essays on Drug Addiction Drug addiction is a very controversial topic with many diverse definitions and opinions. Stanton Peele discusses the numerous sections of drug addiction in â€Å"Addiction Is Not a Disease.† Peele strongly argues the fact that drug addiction is not a disease and that the prevalent drug problem transpires in the ghetto. Peele also states that celebrities are not real addicts in the fact that they can and do get treatment by attending rehabilitation. Peele also discusses the importance of psychological movies of drug addiction, stating what addicts think and how they feel. However, Peele incessantly reminds the reader that drug addicts suffer from a self-inflicted compulsion. Drug addiction is not a disease; rather, it derives not only from the individual addict’s need to feel euphoric or to cope with a sense of helplessness, but also from the pressures of socioeconomic group disadvantage. Stanton Peele reasons that addiction is not a disease in the most comprehensible sense of the word: a disease has a biological cause and often a cure, while an addiction has neither. Peele explains that â€Å"Addiction is not, however, something people are born with. Nor is it a biological imperative, one that means the addicted individual is not able to consider or choose alternatives† (Elements of Argument 127). Generally, people are not â€Å"born with† addiction in the same way that babies are born with hereditary diabetes. A child who suffers from diabetes has not dileberately encouraged the disease, while a drug addict makes the choice to disrupt his or her own body by altering the central nervous system through drugs. While addiction can be as caustic as a lethal ailment, it is important to discern that no individual can contract drug addiction analogous to the way one can hereditary diabetes. The psychological motives for addicts comprise of the need to cope with a sense of defenselessness and the need to feel happy and satisfied. Stanton P...

Wittgenstein's Approach and Domestic Model of Learning Language Coursework

Wittgenstein's Approach and Domestic Model of Learning Language Acquisition Theories - Coursework Example I use the description and explanation of Wittgenstein’s Approach theory and the Domestic Model of learning language acquisition theory to speculate whether my lesson was successful or not.This paper represents a rationale of the lesson on healthy and unhealthy food groups as an aspect of language acquisition. The main objective of a lesson rationale is to provide a logical basis for discussion as well as explaining the lesson worthiness to the students. Various lesson rationales vary in terms of how the students find them convincing. According to O’Donnell, Reeve & Smith (2011), students find lesson rationales that connect the lesson with their future goals and strivings to be more satisfying and convincing. In this lesson rationale, I compare and contrast two major language acquisition theories used to inform a lesson. In this lesson rationale, I also explain the influence the observation of my mentor teachers may have on my lesson and speculates the success of my less on plan based on the mentioned major language acquisition theories.One major language acquisition theory is Wittgenstein’s approach theory. This theory explains various issues pertaining to language acquisition. One of such issues is that language as skills are paramount as a starting point for learning languages (Erneling, 1993). According to Erneling (1993), the theory also explains that language heard and conceptualized is limited and that language is learned and used in a communicative context. This makes this theory a very important theory in trying to understand how a language is acquired. One of the aspects of this theory that makes it a very important language acquisition theory is that it can be used to explain the acquisition of the first language as well as the acquisition of the second, third and fourth languages.

Financial Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 3

Financial Management - Essay Example WACC refers to the weighted sum of cost of capital from all sources. Generally, there are four sources of capital which include preference shares, retained earnings, common or ordinary stock and long-term debt. According to Hitchner (2011) the first step in calculating WACC is to calculate the cost of capital from each source as follows: Cost of debt refers to the rate of return required by the long-term debt capital providers. Mathematically, it’s the discount rate that equates the present value of interest’s payments and the principle repayment to the current market price of the long term debt. To calculate the value of the firm we used the market values of sources of funds (Hitchner 2011). They reflect the economic reality and values. However, market value weight is subject to the frequent changes due to the constant fluctuations of security prices. Book values are influenced by the accounting policies used in calculating net profit and in asset valuation. La Tienda’s chairman has proposed that the source of capital to be used will be debt and has set the coupon rate at 5%. He also suggested that for whichever project is to be chosen, the coupon rate should be used as the cost of capital in evaluating the viability of the projects. On the other hand, the chief financial controller opts for the WACC in evaluating the projects. The treasure is confused and does not have a choice for either rate. Usually, a higher discount rate is more appropriate when the anticipated risk of a project is higher than the risk of the whole firm (Reilly & Brown 2011). For a number of reasons, the chairman’s choice is not appropriate. Lower cost of capital reflects high amounts of the expected cash flows but does not take into account the risks involved. The main source of capital is bond; investors are attracted in buying the bond if

Aircraft Maintenance Aircraft Systems Assignment

Aircraft Maintenance Aircraft Systems - Assignment Example The frequency channels of the VHF Omni-directional Range and the Tactical Air Navigation at each VORTAC facility are doubled in line with an overall plan to make air navigation easier. The MFD gives information on the current route of the aircraft. The information obtained from the on board radar and other sensors on the ground as well as detection sensors are relayed to the crew to analyses. The ground components are always stationary while the flight components are moving as the aircraft moves. The ground components too do not have a display system since the display in the aircraft will be the most essential. It is therefore wise to have one in the pilot’s cabin and not on the ground components. The Altimeter is a navigation instrument whose work is to reflect the vertical height of the mean of sea level. This is corrected to the pressure of outside air. The pilot will have to set the right pressure and the altimeter will automatically identify the altitude that corresponds to the Mean of Sea Level. The instruments work more or less the same like the barometer. When the plane is ascending or descending, the pressure will also reduce and increase in that order. The aneroid capsule compares the pressure outside and the one inside. The pointer and linkage help display the altitude on the cockpit display instrument. Vertical speed Indicator is the instrument that measures the rate at which the aircraft is rising or descending. The speed is usually measured in feet per minute. When the plane is flying level, the Vertical Speed Indicator will be reading â€Å"0† feet per minute. The VSI compares the static pressure in the expandable capsule to the metred static pressure in the exterior of the capsule. The inside of capsule pressure changes so fast on the climbing or descending of the plane and the opposite is true because of the leak that

Controversy Over Water Rights

Controversy Over Water Rights Water Rights: Over 200 Years of History and Still Controversial Water is essential to life, not only human life, but also the life of plants and agriculture. Water is also the essence of life, which means laws have to be made to â€Å"be fair† to everyone that needs water for their land and their agriculture. That is why the Colorado, along with most of the United States, has water rights and laws. Water and water rights have been an issue ever since the mid to late 1800s when â€Å"the water laws first originated during the California Gold Rush in 1848† (Waskom, et al.). The laws were then brought to Colorado during the gold rush of 1859, and put into the state constitution in 1876. It was named the Doctrine of Prior Appropriation or the Colorado Doctrine (Waskom, et al.). Ever since then, water has been fought over constantly and will be fought over until the end of times. It is a valuable source to our survival and also controversial. The history of water rights and water controversy dates all the back to the California Gold Rush during the mid 1800s. As farmers began to migrate in to the state of Colorado, they found a many sunny days and low humidity, and with the right amount of water, they could make crop production rise. However, the Census from 1910 says that Colorado only received about 12-15 inches of rain when farmers first started to arrive. 12-15 inches was not enough for sufficient farming so farmers had to find an alternative water source (qtd. in Penn and Zietz 25). As farmers began to migrate to Colorado, the amount of water needed for farms rose. In the Development of Water Right in Colorado: An Empirical Analysis, Penn and Zietz quote: Early irrigation works in the 1860s were often simple, consisting of a crude stream diversion and a short ditch. Soon, however, farmers discovered that they must combine to build and maintain expensive irritation works; these organized efforts were termed ‘irrigation enterprises’ by the Census Bureau. Between 1860 and 1880, nearly 1,600 new irritation enterprises came into existence. The number of irrigation enterprises more than doubled in the 1880s so that by 1890, 58.9 percent of all farms and 19.4 percent [sic] all land in farms were irrigated. By 1900, 71.3 percent of all farms in the state were irrigated. (26) Penn and Zietz speak of 3 distinct time periods that affected the history of water rights. The first period they speak about was from 1872 to the early 1890s where the majority of court cases were held to deal with upholding and refining the doctrine of prior appropriation. During the second period from the early 1890s to about 1904, courts saw many cases involving irrigation enterprises, which dealt with defining the rights of irrigation cooperatives and partnerships. During the third period, which began in 1905, courts saw many cases regarding storage reservoirs, water rights transfers, and changes in the point of diversion (Penn and Zietz, 26-27). The earliest important case according to Penn and Zietz was seen in 1872 when the Yunker v. Nichols case was seen in the Colorado Supreme Court. This case recognized the need for diverting water from the watercourse. Chief Justice Hallet came to the conclusion that: In a dry and thirsty land it is necessary to divert the water of streams from their natural channels, in order to obtain the fruits of the soil. The value and usefulness of agricultural lands, in this territory, depend o the supply of water for irrigation, and this can only be obtained by constructing artificial channels though which it may flow over adjacent land. (27) To this day, many cases go in and out of courts regarding water rights. It is an on going batter between farmers, states, and whoever else use rivers, streams, irrigation, reservoirs, etc. These cases will continue to roll through courts around the United States. However, without these water rights and laws, states along with farmers would go into riots. â€Å"Many of the developments in water rights in the rest of the Western United States derive in one war or another from the Colorado System† (Penn and Zietz 24). Colorado’s laws have impacted the surrounding states along with states that have adopted Colorado’s ways. Colorado has been the stepping-stone for water rights throughout history and will continue to be. Court cases of water rights are seen around the state of Colorado; however, there is a case that hits close to home in Northeastern Colorado. A small town farmer from the area of Holyoke and near the Nebraska border was involved in a case that changed water rights forever. The Sporhase v. Nebraska case of 1982 was a very controversial case that was taken from a small town all the way to the Supreme Court. Sporhase had land in both Nebraska and Colorado because he lived in the Northeastern corner of the state. Sporhase applied to the Colorado Ground Water Commission to appropriate water to irrigate his land in Colorado from the aquifer that was located beneath the ground. Sporhase was rejected of this application and then decided to invest large sums of money into putting an underground pipeline system beneath his ground to extract water from a well that was across the border in Nebraska. The Department of Water Recourses received a complaint about Sporhase extracting water from Nebra ska and using on Colorado land, which was said to be a violation of the Nebraska statute. Nebraska later sued Sporhase â€Å"to enjoin him from irrigating the Colorado land from his Nebraska well† (Green 924). â€Å"A Nebraska statute required the permission of the Director of Water Resources before groundwater could be transferred across enemy lines.† (Garrett 715-716). During the case, the Supreme Court had to solve an issue that dealt with whether water should be classified as an article of commerce, which would be subject to Congressional Regulation like other natural resources (Green 927). â€Å"An article of commerce is an article (or a resource in this case) that can be offered for sale† (Article of Commerce). Nebraska brought forward three main points that they hoped would sway the decision of the jury. Nebraska first attempted to distinguish water from other natural resources by saying the state makes saving water their top priority because water is the essence of survival for their citizens. In their second argument, Nebraska argued that its water statute was â€Å"a legitimate exercise of the state’s police power to protect the health of its citizens and conserve natural resources.† The third argument, Nebraska argued that congress had given them permission to engage in impermissible groundwater regulation (Green 928-929). In defense, Sporhase used the City of Altus v. Carr case as an example and argument to help his side of the present case. This case â€Å"invalidated a Texas statute that prohibited interstate exportation of groundwater without prior approval of the Texas legislature on the grounds that such restrictions violated the commerce clause† (927). This case was relevant to Sporhase because, in Texas, like Nebraska, landowners do not have a comparable right because water is not privately owned. In the end, the Supreme Court decided in a 7-2 decision, that water is an article of commerce and Sporha se was allowed to keep pumping water from his Nebraska well to his Colorado field (927-930). The decision of this court case set the tone for future court cases that had to do with water because of the decision of water being an article of commerce. When laws and rights are made, they have to be followed. Water rights go along the same lines and this was seen in 2011 when Bonny Reservoir in Yuma County had to be drained to repay Kansas and Nebraska for water that Colorado had used. This came from a 1942 agreement between the three states that claimed the three states had to share water. Colorado had to give up 4 billion gallons of water in order to repay the debt that Kansas claimed Colorado owed them due to the Republican River Compact. â€Å"The compact collected dust for years until Kansas water officials noticed they were not getting enough water from Nebraskas and Colorados portion of the river† (Bonny Reservoir). Colorado looked for many alternatives rather than draining Bonny Reservoir, but all seemed too expensive. The reservoir was drained during Labor Day weekend of 2011, and pushed up the Republican River towards the Kansas-Colorado Border in order to repay the debt to Nebraska and Kansas under the Republican R iver Compact (Bonny Reservoir). Water rights are seen throughout the United States and very much so in the western part of the United States. Water rights come up very often in our local news in Northeastern Colorado along with Colorado. With the increase in technology and agriculture, disputes over water will continue and be on the rise during the future. There will never be an end to this madness because no one will ever be able to get a fair or equal amount as the next person. As water becomes scarcer, the disputes will become more intense and farmers and ranchers will need to find alternatives. Until then, water rights will be taken to courts all across the country to try and make these disputes as fair as possible. Work Cited Article of Commerce. Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com, n.d. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://dictionary.reference.com/>. Bonny Reservoir Could Be Drained Because of Water Deal with Nebraska, Kansas. The Denver Post. The Denver Post, 27 Aug. 2011. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://www.denverpost.com/ci_18771111 Garrett, J.S. Federal Intervention in Groundwater Regulation: Sporhase v. Nebraska Ex Rel. Douglas, 18 Tulsa L.J. 713 (1982) Green, Mary A. Water Law- Sporhase v. Nebraska. Natural Resources Journal 23 (1983): 923-31. The University of New Mexico. The University of New Mexico. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://www.unm.edu Penn, David, and Joachin Zietz. The Development of Water Rights in Colorado: An Empirical Analysis. The American Economist 55.2 (2010): 24-35. EBSCOHOST. Web. 17 Feb. 2014. http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/[emailprotected]5vid=5hid=4207>. Waskom, R., et al. Irrigation Ditches and Their Operation. Natural Resource Series (2011): n. pag. Colorado State University Extension. Colorado State University, Feb. 2011. Web. Feb. 2014. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/natres/06701.pdf>.

Save the teenagers from the evil inventions :: Computer Science

Save the teenagers from the evil inventions "Hi! What did you do last night?" "Oh I talked to someone whom I've never met before. He's so cool I've got to meet him!" "Wow!" This might not make sense to you but it is a conversation you might hear in a teenage community. It is a lot different from those days when everyone used to read books, and a terrible problem has been recognised due to the adult's ignorance. The fast developing computing systems have enabled us to carry out many tasks - easier research, word processing, shopping from homeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ etc., and amongst them is 'easier communication'. For older generations, it probably means an easier way to keep in touch with their old friends or as a mean of exchanging information and ideas. This was probably the main intentions of ISOC (Internet Society), the current internet director. Despite this, by the age of about 15, most children are so sophisticated in their internet use and that they are curious and adventurous, anxious to be independent and sometimes rebellious. For these reasons, many people, especially the teenagers, are using 'chat rooms' on the internet - where they can talk to people they don't know online. It is now the third most popular way of using the web. The advantage is that the person you are talking to doesn't know who you are. Many people who are less confident in speaking in front of the others find that it is easier to start building their confidence by talking to someone without looking at his/her face, and has been a great help for some. The disadvantage is that it equally means that you do not know who you are talking to. Children could be easily exploited or victimised. They may not be someone who they claim to be and you could be giving your personal details to a complete stranger, and arranging to meet him/her is even worse. You could be involved in tragedies such as rape, kidnapping and even murder, as many cases show. 31% of the criminal and civil complaints reported to the police internationally in 2003 were internet related, in which children related was the seventh most common and that of chat room abuse was the 10th. Although some companies, charities and organisations, such as MSN which has closed all its chat rooms recently, are trying to prevent these crimes, it is impossible to ban this system entirely because many important enterprise companies know that they could be after a lot of money from these young people through advertisements. Even if the chat rooms do become illegal, there are the darker sides of the

Nmap Lab Exercise Essay

2. Is Nmap able to identify the operating system running on each system? Is there any Nmap feature that can be used to guess the OS of a host? Explain your answer. Using the ports that are open and the probable services running on those ports, determine what operating systems are running on the devices. Explain your answer. Nmap was not able to classify the operating system (OS) running on all â€Å"3† hosts provided during the exercise. However, Nmap  was able to identify and determine the OS running on â€Å"Host 1† as presented in Figure 1: Host 1 (192.168.100.103). Located in Nmap there is an attribute which is used to conjecture the OS of a target host. If an individual decides to limit the OS detection to the targets, one can use one open and one closed port by using the (osscan-limit) feature command. With this scan Nmap will attempt a (TCP-SYN) connection to 1000 of the most common ports as well as an ICMP echo request to determine if a host if up. On the other hand if Nmap cannot make a perfect match for an OS it will guess something that is close, but not 100% exact (Orebaugh & Pinkard, pp. 111, 2008). This approach is more aggressive and is called (osscan-guess). The initial scan determined that â€Å"Host 1† was running (Microsoft XP SP2 or SP3) validated by the fact that port 445 is open providing Microsoft -ds services. By using the feature attribute (osscan-guess) as described above Nmap determined that â€Å"Host 3† is running (Linuz 2.6X-2.4X â€Å"96%†) as shown in â€Å"Figure 4† below. When running (osscan-limit & osscan-guess) in Nmap I was unable to determine the OS of â€Å"Host 2† due to the fact that all ports were closed. Figure 4 3. Which host appears most secure? Least secure? When running the scans in Nmap, â€Å"Host 1† appears to present the least amount of security of all three hosts in the exercise. This host had the most open ports and by running a rudimentary scan Nmap was able to disclose the operating system of the host. Host 2 was reasonably secure, due to that not even an â€Å"OS Fingerprinting† scan could disclose much about the system. This scan required the use of more advanced attributes to reveal what OS â€Å"Host 2† was running, inevitably the results were ball park answers. In this exercise â€Å"Host 3† has been determined to be the most secure, based on that not even advanced scanning features of Nmap were able to unveil what OS is running on the host. Of the three hosts delivered in the exercise, â€Å"Host 1† had nine open ports, â€Å"Host 2† had two open ports, and the most secure â€Å"Host 3† only publicized one open port. 4. Describe several uses of Nmap. Nmap (Network Mapper) is an open source tool that is used by network administrators and IT security professionals to scan enterprise networks, looking for live hosts, specific services, or specific operating systems (Orebaugh & Pinkard, p. 34, 2008). Nmap has a variety of features, and  territories the aptitude to perform basic scans, while incorporating the capability to command advanced scans containing a mass of options scanning across a huge continuum of IP address universes while logging specific file types or systems. Nmap has the ability to perform packet fragmentation, TCP scan flags customization, and IP and MAC address spoofing to name a few advanced features of many offered in this scanning tool. Nmap can also discover host, and do proper port scanning. Host discovery is a great way to create and maintain an asset database and to discover rogue devices on the network. The real power attribute of Nmap is port scanning, and its efficiency in security auditing, asset manage ment, and especially compliance. Port scanning gives the ability to locate systems with file sharing ports or unauthorized FTP servers and printers. Open ports disclose potential and probable security weaknesses, provide application and services inventory, and validate compliance with approved software guidelines (Orebaugh & Pinkard, p.99, 2008). 5. Which feature(s) of Nmap did you find the most useful and why? The most useful and most operable feature of Nmap is â€Å"OS Fingerprinting†. This feature offers the most depth of results when running a scan of a host. OS Fingerprinting yields information regarding open ports, types of services, as well as the operating system running on the host. OS Fingerprinting is both passive and active, meaning, in the passive it involves sniffing network traffic at any given connection point and matching known patterns that match pre-existing OS identities. In the active this feature requires the use of a set of specialized probes that are sent to the system in question; the responses from the active give insight to what type of OS has been installed. With the availability of these different attributes to one feature gives the IT professional a full scope and clear picture of the host that is being targeted in the scan. 6. Which feature(s) of Nmap did you find the most difficult to use and why? This was my first time using a system like this and struggled with all the features at first. Thus, after performing significant research I have come to the conclusion that using (osscan-guess) can arise significant problems and red flags and this command as described is giving a guess that near-matches aggressively. This command relays back possibilities, and the match has to be very close for Nmap to do this by default. The only positive to this command is that Nmap will tell you when an imperfect match is printed and will display is confidence level by percentage for each guess. 7. Research a command or feature that you consider important but not covered in the lab. Describe its usage and report your findings when running the command against the host in the lab. The one command of interest is the â€Å"sV† command which enables version detection, with attributes of (intensity, light, all, and trace). When performing a version scan, Nmap sends a series of probes each of which is assigned a rarity value between one and nine. The lower-numbered probes are effective against a wide variety of common services, as the higher numbered probes are rarely useful. The intensity level specifies which probes should be applied, and the default is (7). Version light is a convenience for (version-intensity 2) which makes the scanning much faster, but less likely to identify services. Command (all) in â€Å"sV† is an alias for (version-intensity 9) ensures that every single probe is attempted against each port. The last attribute to the feature is (version-trace) which causes Nmap to print out extensive debugging information about what version scanning is doing. As shown in Figure 5 below the (sV) flag tells Nmap to try to determine service version information, this command of version feature is dependent upon the OS Fingerprint scan finding an open TCP or UDP port. Therefore, after the port discovery, version detection takes over and starts its process of probing for information regarding what is open and running on the target (Orebaugh & Pinkard, p.167, 2008). Figure 5: ASSINGMENT PART B NESSUS SCANNER B. Lab Questions: Part B 1. What operating systems are running on different hosts? The operating systems running on each host are the following: Host 1: Microsoft Windows XP SP2 or SP3 Host 2: Linux Kernal Host 3: Linux 2.6X or Linux 2.4X 2. What web server (if any) is running on each computer? According to the screenshots displayed in (Figures 1-3), â€Å"Host 2† appears to running a multicast domain name service (MDNS) server on port 5353 using the UDP protocol. The third host is running a domain name service (DNS) server  on port 53 using TCP protocol and MDNS server on port 5353 using the UDP protocol. It could not be distinguished if â€Å"Host 1† is running any web servers, but ports (80-HTTP) and (443-HTTPS) are both open when running the scan. 3. What are the several services running on each computer? Below will be snap shots of each host providing the services provided by each host. Figure 6: Host 1: 192.168.100.103 Figure 7: Host 2: 192.168.100.105 Figure 8: Host 3: 192.168.100.106 4. Which host had the highest number of vulnerabilities? And which had the least number of vulnerabilities? Based off the scan run on each host, host 1 (192.168.100.103) had the highest number of vulnerabilities, while host 2 (192.168.100.105) provided the least number of vulnerabilities. Host 3 provided no high risk vulnerabilities, one medium risk with two open ports. The details for each host are provided below. Host 1: 192.168.100.103Vulnerabilities: 71 Host 2: 192.168.100.105Vulnerabilities: 49 Host 3: 192.168.100.106Vulnerabilities: 22 5. Identify one high severity vulnerability for each computer (if there is one). Describe the vulnerability and discuss control(s) to minimize risk from the vulnerability. Default password (user) for â€Å"user† account; Microsoft Windows SMB shares unprivileged access When performing the scans for all three hosts, only host (1 & 2) produced high severity vulnerabilities. The vulnerability that produced the biggest red flag in my analysis was protecting user passwords. My scans produced both in host (1 & 2) that default password (user) for â€Å"user† account was at high risk. This vulnerability can be very dangerous to an organization and the users that operate within the network, cloud databases, and encrypted files. This vulnerability can be attributed to pre-established policies on lockout threshold, lockout duration, and cache size. According to Oracle, protecting user accounts is vital and the usernames are stored in a domain server and  are hashed. This vulnerability can be fixed by setting a threshold on an account after invalid attempts to log-in to an account exceed the desired attempts. The numbers of failed user password entries are set before the account is then locked, and subsequent attempts to access the account the account remains locked until the administrator re-sets the password. The lockout duration is the number of minutes that a user’s account remains inaccessible after being locked. Subsequently, administrators should set a cache lockout size which will specify the intended cache size of unused and invalid login attempts. The standard according to Oracle is set at (5), and this is very relevant when a company is audited for IT security. This cache will help the administrator catch logs of failed and unused login attempts for proper compliance reporting. 6. Describe the various uses of Nessus.  Nessus is a vulnerability scanning tool which provides patching, configuration, and compliance auditing. It also encompasses features for mobile, malware, botnet discovery, and sensitive data identification. This is a remote security tool which scans a computer and raises an alert if it discovers any vulnerability that malicious hackers could use to gain access to a computer system that is connected to a network. This operates by running (1200) checks on a given computer, testing to see if any of these other attacks could be used to break the security of a computer and otherwise compromise it. Nessus has many advantages, unlike other scanner solutions Nessus does not make assumptions about your server configuration, yet it is also very extensible, providing scripting language for the IT administrator to write specific tests to the system once the admin becomes familiar with the tool. This tool also provides a plug-in interface. Nessus is open source, meaning it costs nothing and the IT admin is free to see and modify the source as appropriate. This software also encompasses patching assistance when it detects vulnerabilities and it is the best way to mitigate the potential vulnerability (Tenable Network Security, 2014). 7. Which feature(s) of Nessus did you find the most useful and why? The report function is very cohesive and comprehensive which is extremely beneficial to the IT administrator. The client itself will list each vulnerability found as we gauge its level of severity while making appropriate suggestions to the administrator to how the problem may be fixed. The Nessus report lists  the number of hosts tested providing a summary of the vulnerability and detailed instructions and sources to fix the inherent problem. The IT administrator is able to generate graphical reports in vast formats, and this is very beneficial if the administrator is scanning a larger number of computers and would like to get an overall view of the state of the network. 8. Which feature(s) of Nessus did you find the most difficult to use and why? Comparable to my answer given in question (11), the auditing functionality is mediocre at best. It is up to the IT professional or administrator to determine the scope of the vulnerability and may choose to use a different exploitation tool to verify if the reported vulnerabilities credulous. The tool is free, but what price are you willing to risk with using this tool. It also means little support, and understanding false positives. I am by no means an expert when using this tool and really struggled understanding the reports produced. Analyzing the results and recommending valid solutions is the biggest hurdle when using this feature. These vulnerability reports deemed confusing due to the combinations of software and configurations involved. After doing some research it has been established that when provided the report Nessus delivers false-positives because the plug-in is only testing for a software version, or the results produced are unexpected but still somehow valid. If my main responsibility is to evaluate risk, when risk level determines the attention given to the problem, the auditing report should offer this attribute in the report. I noticed that they’re reported as a note or warning and labeled in the plug-in summary as (none; low; medium; high; serious; and critical) though, regrettably these specific classifications are not clear and have been subjectively applied. 9. What are the differences between using Nessus and Nmap? Nessus and Nmap are two solutions that are used for examining the overall security of a network. However, these two scanning solutions are different at a very basic level, Nessus is a vulnerability open source scanner solution whereas Nmap is used to map networks hosts and what ports are open on those hosts. Nessus is installed on a server and runs as cloud application, and the program uses plug-ins to determine if the vulnerability is present on a specific machine. Although, Nessus scans ports similar to  Nmap, Nessus takes those open ports into reason and notifies the user if these ports have potential security threats. In Nessus, the administrator logs into the interface and sets up their own policies, scans, and output reports. These policies are set to determine what specific vulnerabilities are being scanned for (Tetzlaff, 2010). On the contrary, Nmap is a host detection software and port location tool. In Nessus, the tool uses specific vulnerabilities against the host, Nmap discovers the active IP hosts using a grouping of probes (Tetzlaff, 2010). Nmap uses open ports to gather extra intelligence such as versions of databases running on specific servers. This feature is offered once the scan has been completed for the identified hosts on the network.  The grease that this solution holds is host detection and port scanning. 10. What would you change about this lab? Any suggestion or feedback? This lab overall was very challenging for as has this whole experience in the major. I have absolutely no previous knowledge in the field or took classes in undergrad regarding IT or computer science. This is a booming industry and worked closely with the forensic agent group at Department of Treasury, yet never understood the processes and procedures it took to properly manage this content. Moving forward, I would like to see this University system move to a more interactive classroom. Meaning, the ability to offer in face interaction between student and instructor with an application platform like Skype or Google Hangout, as these applications can provide the technology to administer taped or live interaction in the event something is seriously miss-understood. The ability to teach myself the content is very rewarding yet difficult at times. Overall the lab was very influential to my growth in this major, but it would be very beneficial if some sort of video instruction was provided as well as communication means provided be enhanced between the student and instructor. 11. Research a command or feature that you consider important but not covered in the lab. Describe its usage and report your findings when running the command or feature against the host in the lab. When running the scan’s against the provided host with research provided by Nessus, the sensitive content auditing is very cumbersome. This feature was not discussed in the lab, but with researching how to use this solution, I attempted to use this feature in the exercise. It states that it performs agentless audits of Windows and UNIX-based systems to identify sensitive information (PII; Credit Cards;  SSN’s; and Top Secret data) but configuring this feature requires an administrator in-depth knowledge of this feature provided by the program. Without this vital knowledge, and potential plug-ins to enable or disable I became immediately confused as to how to appropriately administer the advanced features of this program. To me as a former investigator this feature is very important in the event that insiders or intruders are attempting to identify sensitive data. This will allow an organization the ability to prioritize security issues. The system feature will inherently allow me to monitor systems and users that are not authorized to process that specific data (Tenable Network Security, 2014). REFRENCES Northchutt, S., Shenk, J., Shackleford, D., Rosenberg, T., Siles, R., & Mancini, S. (2006). Penetration testing: Assessing your overall security before attackers do. CORE Impact: SANS Analyst Program. 1-17. Retrieved from https://www.sans.org/reading-room/analysts-program/PenetrationTesting-June06 Symantec. (2010). Nessus part 3: Analyzing Reports. Retrieved from http://www.symantec.com/connect/articles/nessus-part-3-analysing-reports Tenable Network Security. (2014). Nessus compliance checks: Auditing system configurations and content. 75, 1-37. Retrieved from https://support.tenable.com/support-center/nessus_compliance_checks.pdf Tetzlaff, R. (2010). Nessus vs. nmap: Comparing two security tools. Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/computing/smb-security/articles/67789.aspx#imgn_1 Oracle. (2014). Managing weblogic security: Protecting user accounts. BAE Systems. Retrieved from http://docs.oracle.com/cd/E13222_01/wls/docs81/secmanage/passwords.html Orebaugh, A., & Pinkard, B. (2008). Nmap in the enterprise: Your guide to network scanning. Syngress Publishing Inc. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Inc.

Usage That Provokes Blackboard Moments

Usage That Provokes Blackboard Moments Usage That Provokes Blackboard Moments Usage That Provokes Blackboard Moments By Maeve Maddox The comments on my post about writing dates with or without terminals got me thinking about the way everyone who speaks English reacts strongly to at least one word or point of usage. The different ways that people write a date seem to excite curiosity without making anyone angry, but sometimes words or expressions evoke annoyance so intense as to constitute rabid aversion. (Im thinking of the responses provoked by my article on couldnt care less.) By a blackboard moment I mean a physical reaction similar to what we feel when the teachers hand slips and we hear a fingernail scrape against the board. Here are some of the words, pronunciations, spellings and expressions that produce blackboard moments of various intensities in me. (The preferred form is in parentheses.) standing on line (standing in line) light something on fire (set something on fire) Me and my friends swim. (My friends and I swim.) in hopes of (in the hope of) pronouncing the word pecan with a long e and a short a: /pee can/ (instead of with a schwa and the a of father: /pe kahn/) pronouncing the t in Bill Clinton (he pronounces his name with a glottal stop: /klin?n.) seperate (separate) dalmatien (dalmatian) shepard dog (shepherd dog) cemetary (cemetery) its tail (its tail) In that incidence he was right. (In that instance he was right.) Do you want some sandwich? (Do you want part of a sandwich?) How about you, Gentle Reader? What in the speaking or writing of English produces a blackboard moment for you? Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Expressions category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:The Yiddish Handbook: 40 Words You Should Know75 Idioms and Expressions That Include â€Å"Break†50 Tips on How to Write Good

Just War Theory

Just War Theory Free Online Research Papers The Just War Theory is a principle of ethics followed in the military that originated from Catholic and Roman philosophy. The principle has also been put forward by international policy makers in the modern world in holding that conflicts should cater to the needs of political, religious and philosophical justice by following a given code of conduct. There are basically four ways in which war can be thought about. The first is realism whereby war becomes a subject matter of power and necessity so that there is no room for making any analysis on moral grounds. The second may be called a holy war which is fought to authorize the intimidation or killing of non believers. The third way pertains to a war that can be referred to as something which is fundamentally immoral. The fourth way in thinking about war relates to the human activities that is called a just war, whereby a complete moral reasoning must be made applicable to the activities related to war thus assisting in determining wh ether the use of force is justified or not. Wheeler (2002) has defined Just War Theory as one that â€Å"determines that a war is just if it satisfies the conditions of the jus ad bellum: just cause, last resort, right intention, reasonable prospect of success leading to a just peace and right authority. However, states that go to war whether for just or unjust reasons must also meet the requirement of the jus in bello. This establishes the absolute and overriding constraint that states are not permitted to deliberately harm the innocent.† While accepting these criteria of Just War Theory the conduct of the coalition that initiated the Iraq war will be examined in the light of the given standards. The Just War Theory has helped a great deal in shaping the charter of the United Nations and international laws in regard to wars. The tradition of just war ethically aims at seriously reflecting upon the inviolability of human life and dignity in assuming that all those who may be at variance with us as also those who are against us in war do command the basic right for life and dignity in the same way and to the same extent that we may command. Historically the tradition of just wars has served to use force within the limits of moral boundaries and has contributed to a great extent in limiting the use of military force than to authorize the same. However the just war theory does tell us that there are instances when the use of force is necessary and morally justified. In order to get a better understanding of the issue it is better to first outline the circumstances under which the War on Iraq was stipulated. It was assumed that Iraq possesses biological weapons and other weapons of mass destruction and seeks to possess nuclear weapons. Secondly, in view of the history of Iraq, that relates to several instances of aggression and brutality, there was every possibility of Saddam using such weapons in the future, examples of which are present of their use on his own soil when chemical weapons were used to curb attacks in north Iraq. He is also known to have made these weapons available for terrorist activities. The circumstances under which the Iraq war was initiated were quite controversial and it is hard to conclude whether its given objectives were actually the true objectives. As reported by the Sunday Times (July 2005), â€Å"Bush wanted to remove Saddam, through military action, justified by the conjunction of terrorism and WMD. But the intelligence and facts were being fixed around the policy† (Sunday Times, July 2005). There were questions in regard to the presence of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), which though were not found. There were concerns about such weapons being handed over to terrorists. Just before the attack on Iraq, it was observed by Stephen Walt and John Mearsheimer (2003) that, â€Å"there is no credible evidence that Iraq had anything to do with the terrorist attacks against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon or more generally that Iraq is collaborating with al Qaeda against the United States. Hawks inside and outside the Bush administration have gone to extraordinary lengths over the past months to find a link, but they have come up empty-handed† (Walt Mearsheimer,2003). Walt and Mearsheimer (2003) have said that there was always a conflict in ideology between Bin Laden and the Baath regime in Iraq which believed in secularism. It was very unlikely that there could have been any collusion between the two because it would have certainly come to light resulting in a violent response from the US. In considering the principle of last resort as provided by the supposition under â€Å"Jus Ad Bellum†, it is clear that the US was not under attack by Iraq at that time and there was no indication of any imminent attack by Iraqi coalition forces. The US put forth the argument that the war on terror was in progress since it had been assaulted on 9/11 which provided ground for it to take measures of defense. But there was no conclusive association found between Iraq and the September 11, 2001 assault and hence the attack on Iraq cannot be taken as measure that was taken as a ‘last resort’. It is argued by several critics that there are several indications about the purported link between the 9/11 attacks and the WMD being entirely superfluous. There was no apparent or proved threat and no prospects of attacks which prove that there was no reason for the US to resort to this kind of invasion at any level. The only plausible circumstances whereby a coalition could be formed between Al-Qaeda and the Baath Party would relate to a situation whereby Saddam would have unearthed a plan to overthrow him. In this case also the principle of â€Å"Jus Ad Bellum† and the consideration in regard to â€Å"reasonable prospect of success† is in conflict with the provision of â€Å"just cause, right intention† under the Just War Theory. The issue of WMD proved to be insignificant and there was no evidence to nail Saddam on that account or with any association with Bin-Laden. Arguments have been made that an attack on Iraq would strengthen the possibilities of terror attacks from there thus providing impetus for failure of all actions in this regard. There is reason to believe that the criteria of â€Å"Jus in Bello† have not been met by the coalition forces in Iraq. Since most areas of Iraq have been at war since March 2003, it is very difficult to ascertain the exact extent of losses to human life and property. But even in the absence of authentic data in this regard, it is possible to collect information from different sources to get an understanding of the conduct of the coalition force. Amnesty International had reported shortly after the commencement of the war that it was worrisome to observe that cluster bombs were being used in areas that were heavily populated. It is known that cluster bombs disperse small bombs across large areas without exploding thus making the area a potential threat as in the case of land mines. Wheeler (2002) has pointed out in his analysis of the â€Å"Jus in Bello† criteria that a civilian person is â€Å"innocent† in not having the â€Å"capacity to harm others†, and the several deaths of children and civilians clearly indicate that the criteria has been grossly violated in Iraq. According to Walzer, â€Å"the relevant distinction is †¦ between those who make what soldiers need to fight and those who make what they need to live. So, for example, civilians working in munitions factories may legitimately be killed, but not civilians providing essential utilities. Crucial to the Jus in Bello criteria is the concept of proportionality. This is enshrined in the Geneva Conventions, for example, Article 52(2) which allows states only to attack objects which by their nature, location, purpose or use make an effective contribution to military action†. In the terminology of â€Å"Jus ad Bellum†, there is need to revisit the contention that counter insurgency war has links with the broader â€Å"war on terror†. President Bush had said that â€Å"if we lose [in Iraq], if this young democracy fails, the enemy will be emboldened. They will have resources in which to launch attacks. They have declared their desire to have a caliphate throughout the Middle East, and one of their targets is to topple modern governments†. All evidence suggests that the war in Iraq has not been a just war especially in relation to the war on terror. While conceiving the war, intentions were not made clear and the cause was never proved. It has not been conclusively proved that it was undertaken as a â€Å"last resort† because there was no supposed threat that has been proved. The objectives of curbing terrorist activities and threats were never put forth convincingly although the threats for the same were said to have increased consequent to such a military action. Under the circumstances there were very remote chances of success for bringing peace and authority to curb the conditions prevailing in Iraq. Although the Just War Theory has had a long tradition it has been criticized for being just relativistic in contradicting the universal philosophical beliefs like the ethic of reciprocity. Humanists who are secular often propagate the Just War Theory on the basis of widespread ethical practices without relying on morality as espoused by Christianity . The theorists for Just War normally display an attitude that morally abhors war while at the same time being ready to agree that war does become necessary at times. In essence, Just War Theory aims at distinguishing between what is justified and not justified while engaging in war. It aims at conceiving how to restrain the use of arms in a more humane manner so that long lasting justice and peace is established. However in the case of Iraq it is felt that most actions were atrocities that contravened the tenets of â€Å"Jus In Bello†. Hence a war that is fought against an insurgency that is considered popular will neither be â€Å"Jus in Bello† nor â€Å"Jus ad Bellum†. The attacks of September 11 and the two wars that were fought subsequently have raised national security issues and made them larger than the economic problems facing the US. These developments have resulted in divided opinions and conflicting emotions in regard to the foreign policy to be followed in such times. There is considerable discontent with Iraq which is influencing the shaping of the foreign policy as much as the policies for curbing terrorism. Americans have now become intensely conscious and concerned about the reduced international respect for the country arising out of disappointment over Iraq. It is believed that the US is now less respected in the international community because the decision of war was wrong. This loss in respect is considered as a major foreign policy in the USA. There is continued discontentment in regard to the manner in which Iraq was handled and public criticism continues to increase about the faulty approach of the Bush administration to national security issues. A lesson is learnt in that there is no need to act extra fast in using force, but to find diplomatic solutions by all possible means. Most Americans believe that there should be emphasis on relying on the opinion of US allies in the formulation of its foreign policy. The priorities of the American public after 9/11 have changed significantly. Concern over issues not related to terrorism, such as AIDS and dealing with hunger have reduced considerably. Bibliography Cirincione Joseph, et. al. 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